Lessons Menu:

• Lesson 1 – Getting Started
• Lesson 2 - Choosing a Robotic Platform
• Lesson 3 - Making Sense of Actuators
• Lesson 4 - Understanding Microcontrollers
• Lesson 5 - Choosing a Motor Controller
• Lesson 6 - Understanding Communication Methods
• Lesson 7 - Using Sensors
• Lesson 8 - Getting the Right Tools
• Lesson 9 - Assembling a Robot
• Lesson 10 - Programming a Robot

Making Sense of Actuators

Now that we learned about robotics in general in Lesson 1 and that the type of robots to be made has been decided in Lesson 2, we will choose the actuators that will make the robot move.

An “actuator” can be defined as a device that converts energy (in robotics, that energy tends to be electrical) into physical motion. The vast majority of actuators produce either rotational or linear motion. For instance, a “DC motor” is therefore a type of actuator. Choosing the right actuators for your robot requires imagination, and a bit of math and physics.

Rotational Actuators

As the name indicates, this type of actuators transform electrical energy into a rotating motion. There are two main parameters governing them: (1) torque, the force they can produce at a given distance (usually expressed in N•m or Oz•in), and (2) the rotational speed (usually measured in revolutions per minutes, or rpm).

AC Motor

AC (alternating current) is rarely used in mobile robots since most of them are powered with direct current (DC) coming from batteries. Also, since electronic components use DC, it is more convenient to have the same type of power supply for the actuators as well. AC motors are mainly used in industrial environments where very high torque is required, and where the motors are connected to the mains / wall outlet.

DC Motors

DC motors come in a variety of shapes and sized although most are cylindrical. They feature an output shaft which rotates at high speeds usually in the 5 000 to 10 000 rpm range. Most DDC motors rotate very quickly, but are not strong (low torque).

To incorporate a motor into a robot, you need to fix the body to the frame. For this reason motors  often feature mounting holes which are generally located  on the face of the motor so they can be mounted perpendicularly to a surface. DC motors can operate in clockwise (CW) and counter clockwise (CCW) rotation. The angular motion of the turning shaft can be measured using encoders or potentiometers.

Geared DC Motors

A DC gear motor is a DC motor combined with a gearbox that gears it down.  This means that the motor’s speed is reduced which, in turn, increase the torque. For example, if a DC motor rotates at 10 000 rpm and produces 0.001 N•m of torque, adding a 256:1 (“two hundred and fifty six to one”) gear down would reduce the speed by a factor of 256 (resulting in 10 000rpm / 256 = 39 rpm), and increase the torque by a factor of 256 (0.001 x 256 = 0.256 N•m). The usual types of gearing are “spur” (the most common), “planetary” (more complex but allows for higher gear-downs in a more confined space, as well as higher efficiency) and “worm” (which allows for very high gear ratio with just a single stage, and also prevents the output shaft from moving if the motor s not powered). Just like a DC motor, a DC gear motor can also rotate CW and CCW.

R/C Servo Motors

Industrial Servo Motors

An industrial servo motor is controlled differently than a hobby servo motor and is more commonly found on very large machines. An industrial servo motor is usually made up of a large AC (sometimes three-phase) motor, a gear down and an encoder which provides feedback about angular position and speed. These motors are usually not used in mobile robots because of their weight, size, cost and complexity. You might find an industrial servo in a more powerful industrial robotic arm.

Stepper Motors

A stepper motor does exactly as its name implies; it rotates in specified “steps” (actually, specific degrees). The number of degrees the shaft rotates with each step (step size) varies based on several factors. Most stepper motors do not include gearing, so just like a DC motor, the torque is often low. Configured properly, a stepper can rotate CW and CCW and can be moved to a desired position. There are unipolar and bipolar stepper motor types. One notable downside to stepper motors is that if the motor is not powered, it’s difficult to be certain of the motor’s starting angle.

A geared stepper motor has the same effect as a DC gear motor; increasing the torque and decreasing the speed. Since the speed is reduced by the gear ratio, the step size is also reduced by that same factor. If the non geared down stepper motor had a step size of 1.2 degrees, and you add a gear down of 55:1, the new step size would be 1.2 / 55 = 0.0218 degrees.

Linear Actuators

A linear actuator produces linear motion (motion along one straight line) and can be described by three main distinguishing features: the amount of linear displacement they are able to produce or stroke (in m or inches),  their force (in Kg or lbs), and their speed (in m/s or inch/s).

DC Linear Actuator

A DC linear actuator is often made up of a DC motor connected to a lead screw. As the motor turns, so does the lead screw. A traveller on the lead screw is forced either forwards of backwards, essentially converting the rotating motion to a linear motion. Some DC linear actuators incorporate a linear potentiometer which provides linear position feedback. In order to stop the actuator from destroying itself, many manufacturers include limit switches at either end which cuts power to the actuator when pressed.  DC linear actuators range tremendously in size, stroke and force.

Solenoids

Solenoids are composed of a coil wound around a mobile core. When the coil is energized, the core is pushed away from the magnetic field and produces a motion in a single direction. Multiple coils or some mechanical arrangements would be required in order to provide a motion in two directions. A solenoid’s stroke is usually very small but their speed is very fast. The strength depends mainly on the coil size and the current going trough it. This type of actuator is commonly used in valves or latching systems and there is usually no position feedback (it’s either fully retracted or fully extended).

Muscle wire

Muscle wire is a special type of wire that will contract when an electric current traverses it. Once the current is gone (and the wire cools down) it returns to its original length. This type of actuator is not very strong, fast or provides a long stroke. Nevertheless, it is very convenient when working with very small parts or in a very confined space.

Pneumatic and Hydraulic

Pneumatic and hydraulic actuators use air or a liquid (e.g. water or oil)  respectively in order to produce a linear motion. These types of actuators can have very long strokes, high force and high speed. In order to be operated they require the use of a fluid compressor which makes them more difficult to operate than regular electrical actuators. Because of they high force speed and generally large size, they are mainly used in industrial environments.

Choosing an Actuator

To help you with the selection of an actuator for a specific task, we have developed the following questions to guide you in the right direction.

It is important to note that there are always new and innovative technologies being brought to market and nothing is set in stone. Also note that an single actuator may perform very different task in different contexts. For instance, with additional mechanics, an actuator that produces linear motion may be used to rotate an object and vice versa (like on a car’s windshield wiper).

(1) Is the actuator being used to move a wheeled robot?

Drive motors must move the weight of the entire robot and will most likely require a gear down. Most robots use “skid steering” while cars or trucks tend to use rack-and-pinion steering. If you choose skid steering, DC gear motors are the ideal choice for robots with wheels or tracks as they provide continuous rotation, and can have optional position feedback using optical encoders and are very easy to program and use. If you want to use rack-and-pinion, you will need one drive motor (DC gear is also suggested) and one motor to steer the front wheels). For stirring, since the rotation required is restricted to a specific angle, an R/C servo would be the logical choice.

(2) Is the motor being used to lift or turn a heavy weight?

Lifting a weight requires significantly more power than moving a weight on a flat surface. Speed must be sacrificed in order to gain torque and it is best to use a gearbox with a high gear ratio and powerful DC motor or a DC linear actuator. Consider using system (either with worm gears, or clamps) that prevents the mass from falling in case of a power loss.

(3) Is the range of motion limited to 180 degrees?

If the range is limited to 180 degrees and the torque required is not significant, an R/C servo motor is ideal. Servo motors are offered in a variety of different torques and sizes and provide angular position feedback (most use a potentiometer, and some specialized ones use optical encoders). R/C servos are used more and more to create small walking robots.

(4) Does the angle need to be very precise?

Stepper motors and geared stepper motors (coupled with a stepper motor controller) can offer very precise angular motion. They are sometimes preferred to servo motors because they offer continuous rotation. However, some high-end digital servo motors use optical encoders and can offer very high precision.

(5) Is the motion in a straight line?

Linear actuators are best for moving objects and positioning them along a straight line. They come in a variety of sizes and configurations. Muscle wire should be considered only if your motion requires very little force. For very fast motion, consider pneumatics or solenoids, and for very high forces, consider DC linear actuators (up to about 500 pounds) and then hydraulics.

Tools

In order to compute the strength (or torque), and speed required for your application, many (rather complex) computations are required involving the physics of the machine to be created. In order to simplify the design process, we have put together a few tools that can help you out.

• DC Drive Motor Selector (useful for robots with wheels or tracks). Also consult the Drive Motor Sizing Tutorial for further details.
• Robot Leg Torque Tutorial
• Robot Arm Torque Calculator

Practical Example

In lesson 1 we determined the objective of our project would be to get a better understanding of mobile robots, while keeping the budget to about $200 to a maximum of $300. In lesson 2 we decided we wanted a small tank (on tracks) that could operate on top of a desk.

First, let us determine the type of actuators that would be required by answering the five  aforementioned questions:

1. Is the actuator being used to move a wheeled robot?
   Yes. A DC gear motor is the suggested type of actuator and skid steering is appropriate for a tank, which means that each track will need it;s own motor.
2. Is the motor being used to lift or turn a heavy weight?
   No, a desktop rover is not heavy.
3. Is the range of motion limited to 180 degrees?
   No, the wheels need to urn continuously.
4. Does the angle need to be precise?
   No, our robot does not require positional feedback.
5. Is the motion in a straight line?
   No, since we want the robot to turn and move in all directions.

Since rotating a wheel needs rotational motion, we could quickly eliminate all linear actuators and choose a DC gear motor. The next logical question was “which one?” A search online shows that there are not too many track systems intended for small robots, which in itself would restrict which motors we could consider.

The Currently Available Track Systems

At 2″ and 3″ wide, the Lynxmotion tracks are more intended for medium sized robots, so we’ll omit them. The price does fall within the budget though.

The Vex Tank Tread Kit is definitely a good option, but it would restrict us to one specific motor.

The Tamiya Track and Wheel Set is definitely a good option, and would limit our choices to Tamiya motors  and gearboxes. This would also be within the budget.

There are several Johnny Robot Track Kits, one for a Hitec continuous rotation servo (which is essentially a gear motor in a servo’s body) another for a Futaba continuous rotation servo, one for Tamiya motors and another for Pololu or Solarbotics motors. This is definitely a good option and also within our budget. Mainly because of aesthetic and motor compatibility reasons, we are going to stick with this choice.

There is always the option of hacking a toy such as an R/C tank and convert it into a robot.  This option would also give us compatible motors, however, the objective is to design our own robot and not hack another product.

Computing the motor requirements

The next step is to fill out the DC Drive Motor Selector Tool, using approximate values.

Data Details

• Total mass of robot: 200 g  encompass everything, including the motors and batteries.
• Number of drive motors: Two motors are required for skid steering.
• Radius of drive wheel: from 0.5” to about 1” should be an appropriate size for a desktop robot.
• Velocity of robot: 0.2 m/s would be nice for a desktop robot.
• Maximum incline: Climbing some books would be cool, let us choose 30 degrees.
• Supply Voltage: Uncertain at the moment, so we choose the default 12 V
• Desired Acceleration: Not sure, so choose default 0.2 m/s²
• Desired operating time: 30 minutes is reasonable.
• Total efficiency: Not sure, so we choose default 65%

Using 0.5 as the wheel radius we obtain 150 rpm @ 1.4 oz-in. When using 1”, the calculator provides 75rpm @  2.8 oz-in.

Selecting the Motor

Thus, the motor we are looking for must turn at approximately 75 to 150 rpm and provide 0.49 to 4.9oz-in of torque. We can use the DC motor Comparison Table in order to find the appropriate motor.

There are many motors available that fit the Johnny Robot Track Kit :

The Solarbotics GM8 and GM9 feature 70 rpm @ 43 oz-in and 66 rpm at 43 oz-in respectively. Both sell for $5.46 each.

All Tamiya gearbox ad motor combinations sell for approximately $11 and up and provide a wide range of torques and speeds.

Hitec continuous rotation servo and Futaba continuous rotation servos sell for  $17  and $14 respectively.

In the end, we opted for using a pair of Solarbotics GM9 in order to use skid-drive, mainly because of their low cost.

As announced in the recent RobotShop Press Release, the Mint, a floor wiping robot  by Evolution Robotics, is finally out in the wild and available at RobotShop along with all of its robotic floor cleaning friends.

After vacuum robots, now it is the turn for floor wiping (or Swiffer) robots to clean our houses. This smart rather diminutive robot silently and systematically wipes the entirety of the floors of the unsuspecting owner. It can even mop the floor if need be . It uses a navigation technology called NorthStar that allows it to track its position anywhere in a room with the help of a stationary beacon. See the video below for further details.

Via RobotShop Blog.

Here is a nice little video about the  Neato XV-11 engineering samples getting unboxed. The video goes trough the various features and accessories for the new and exciting XV-11. As shown at the end of the video, the robot is quite smart and can clean surfaces very efficiently. We cannot wait to see an XV-11 autopsy in order to have a better look at the SLAM system.

Via RobotShop Blog.

Nanodot normally focuses on longer-term nanotechnologies such as molecular manufacturing, but we do like to keep an eye on how different countries compare to each other in nanotech and technology in general. Below is an excerpt from a recent Lux Research announcement; you can read the full PDF here:

U.S. Risks Losing Global Leadership in Nanotech

While the U.S. still leads the world in nanotech innovation by virtue of its size, Japan, Germany and South Korea are doing a better job of bringing technology to market, says Lux Research.

In terms of sheer volume, the U.S. dominated the rest of the world in nanotech funding and new patents last year, as U.S. government funding, corporate spending, and VC investment in nanotech collectively reached $6.4 billion in 2009. But according to a new report from Lux Research, countries such as China and Russia launched new challenges to U.S. dominance in 2009, while smaller players such as Japan, Germany and South Korea surpassed the United States in terms of commercializing nanotechnology and products.

Now, I don’t know why this may be the case, but speaking as someone running a small nonprofit in the U.S., the paperwork alone is a huge burden, and I know it’s worse in the case of for-profit companies and larger organizations.  —Chris Peterson

Forbes describes work at IBM Zurich:

IBM researchers in its Zurich lab have drawn–or rather, carved–a three-dimensional map of the world that’s 22 micrometers east to west by 11 micrometers north to south. At that size, about 15 of the maps could be wrapped end to end long-ways around a strand of human hair, by our math.

In a process the researchers describe in articles published today in Scienceand Advanced Materials, they used a silicon needle with a tip about ten thousand times smaller than an ant to sculpt a polymer material known as polyphthalaldehyde. By heating the needle to between 300 and 500 degrees centigrade, they were able to melt and evaporate tiny segments of the material without disturbing those particles’ neighbors…

IBM’s researchers hope that it could someday be used to craft circuit boards at smaller sizes than e-beam lithography is used to etch them today, or even build tiny nanobots or other tiny mechanical structures that could travel inside the human body or other nanoscale environments.

More images here.  Go IBM!  —Chris Peterson

Longtime Foresight supporter John Gilmore writes: “I noticed a story that reminded me of something Foresight wanted to encourage in society.  Wired reports that the CIA uses decision analysis software ‘Analysis of Competing Hypotheses’, and has funded a rewritten version for shared networked analysis by many people.  But the gov’t contractors got into a hassle over who owned the code, so its developer is dumping it out into the open source world:

http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2010/08/cia-software-developer-goes-open-source-instead/

http://www.competinghypotheses.org

“It’s not *quite* released yet, but in theory it will show up there.

“Here’s how the Analysis of Competing Hypotheses process works:

https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/psychology-of-intelligence-analysis/art11.html

Analysis of competing hypotheses, sometimes abbreviated ACH, is a tool to aid judgment on important issues requiring careful weighing of alternative explanations or conclusions. It helps an analyst overcome, or at least minimize, some of the cognitive limitations that make prescient intelligence analysis so difficult to achieve.

ACH is an eight-step procedure grounded in basic insights from cognitive psychology, decision analysis, and the scientific method. It is a surprisingly effective, proven process that helps analysts avoid common analytic pitfalls. Because of its thoroughness, it is particularly appropriate for controversial issues when analysts want to leave an audit trail to show what they considered and how they arrived at their judgment.

“This reminded me of the ’science court’ process that Eric [Drexler] described decades ago in Engines of Creation.  It sounds like it may have found an institutional home in the CIA and may be able to break out into broader society.”

Thanks for this, John.  We’ll watch it with interest!  —Chris Peterson

Lessons Menu:

• Lesson 1 – Getting Started
• Lesson 2 - Choosing a Robotic Platform
• Lesson 3 - Making Sense of Actuators
• Lesson 4 - Understanding Microcontrollers
• Lesson 5 - Choosing a Motor Controller
• Lesson 6 - Understanding Communication Methods
• Lesson 7 - Using Sensors
• Lesson 8 - Getting the Right Tools
• Lesson 9 - Assembling a Robot
• Lesson 10 - Programming a Robot

Choosing a Robotic Platform

Following the first lesson, you now have a basic understanding of what a robot is and what current robots normally do.

Now, it is time to decide on the type if robot you are going to build. A custom robot design often starts with a “vision” of what the robot will look like and what it will do. The types of robots possible are unlimited, though the more popular are:

• Land wheeled, tracked, and legged robots
• Aerial planes, helicopters, and blimp
• Aquatic boats, submarines, and swimming robots
• Misc. and mixed robots
• Stationary robot arms, and  manipulators

This lesson is intended to help you decide what type of robot to build to best suite your mission. Since you have brainstormed on what tasks or functions you want it to accomplish (after lesson 1),  you can now choose the type of robot that will best suite your needs. Below, you will find a description of all the major robot types.

Land

Land-based robots, especially the wheeled ones,  are the most popular mobile robots among beginners as they usually require the least investment while providing significant exposure to robotics. On the other hand, the most complex type of robots is the humanoid (akin to a human), as it requires many degrees of freedom and synchronizing the motion of many motors, and uses many sensors.

Wheeled Robots

Wheels are by far the most popular method of providing mobility to a robot and are used to propel many different sized robots and robotic platforms. Wheels can be just about any size, from a few centimetres  up to 30 cm and more . Tabletop robots tend to have the smallest wheels, usually less than 5 cm in diameter. Robots can have just about any number of wheels, although 3 and 4 are the most common. Normally a three-wheeled robot uses two wheels and a caster at one end. More complex two wheeled robots may use gyroscopic stabilization. It is rare that a wheeled robot use anything but skid steering (like that of a tank). Rack and pinion steering such as that found on a car requires too many parts and its complexity and cost outweigh most of its advantages.

Four and six wheeled robots have the advantage of using multiple drive motors (one connected to each wheel) which reduces slip. Also, omni-directional wheels or mecanum wheels, used properly, can give the robot significant mobility advantages. A common misconception about building a wheeled robot is that large, low-cost DC motors can propel a medium sized robot. As we will see later in this series, there is a lot more involved than just a motor.

Advantages

• Usually low-cost compared to other methods
• Simple design and construction
• Abundance of choice
• Six wheels or more rival a track system
• Excellent choice for beginners

Disadvantages

• May lose traction (slip)
• Small contact area (only a small rectangle or line underneath each wheel is in contact with the ground)

Tracked Robots

Tracks (or treads) are what tanks use. Although tracks do not provide added “force” (torque), they do reduce slip and more evenly distribute the weight of the robot, making them useful for loose surfaces such as sand and gravel. Also, a track system with some flexibility can better conform to a bumpy surface. Finally, most people tend to agree that tank tracks add an “aggressive” look to the robot as well.

Advantages

• Constant contact with the ground prevents slipping that might occur with wheels
• Evenly distributed weight helps your robot tackle a variety of surfaces
• Can be used to significantly increase a robot’s ground clearance without incorporating a larger drive wheel

Disadvantages

• When turning, there is a sideways force that acts on the ground; this can cause damage to the surface the robot is being used on, and cause the tracks to wear
• Not many different tracks are available (robot is usually constructed around the tracks)
• Drive sprocket might significantly limit the number of motors that can be used.
• Increased mechanical complexity (idler placement and number, # of links) and connections

Legs

An increasing number of robots use legs for mobility. Legs are often preferred for robots that must navigate on very uneven terrain. Most amateur robots are designed with six legs, which allow the robot to be statically balanced (balanced at all times on 3 legs); robots with fewer legs are harder to balance. The latter require “dynamic stability”, meaning that if the robot stops moving mid-stride, it might fall over. Researchers have experimented with monopod (one legged “hopping”) designs, though bipeds (two legs), quadrupeds (four legs), and hexapods (six legs) are the  most popular.

Advantages

• Closer to organic or natural motion
• Can potentially overcome large obstacles and navigate very rough terrain

Disadvantages

• Increased mechanical, electronic and coding complexity (not the easiest way to get into robotics).
• Lower battery size despite increased power demands
• Higher cost to build

Air

A AUAV (Autonomous Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) is very appealing and is entirely within the capability of many robot enthusiasts. However, the advantages of building an autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles, especially if you are a beginner, have yet to outweigh the risks.  When considering an aerial vehicle, most hobbyists still use existing commercial remote controlled aircraft. On the professional side, aircraft such as the US military Predator were initially semi-autonomous though in recent years Predator aircraft have flown missions autonomously.

Advantages

• Remote controlled aircraft have been in existence for decades (so there is a large community, at least for the mechanics)
• Excellent for surveillance

Disadvantages

• The entire investment can be lost in one crash.
• Limited robotic community to provide help for autonomous control

Water

An increasing number of hobbyists, institutions and companies are developing unmanned underwater vehicles. There are many obstacles yet to overcome to make underwater robots attractive to the wider robotic community though in recent years, several companies have commercialized pool cleaning “robots”. Underwater vehicles can use ballast (compressed air and flooded compartments), thrusters, tail and fins or even wings to submerge. Other aquatic robots such as pool cleaners are useful commercial products.

Advantages

• Most of our planet is water, so there is a lot to explore and discover
• Design is almost guaranteed to be unique
• Can be used and/or tested in a pool

Disadvantages

• Robot can be lost many ways (sinking, leaking, entangled…)
• Most electronic parts do not like water (also consider water falling on electronics when accessing the robot after a dive)
• Surpassing depths of 10m or more can require significant research and investment
• Very limited robotic community to provide help
• Limited wireless communication options

Miscellaneous and hybrid combinations

Your idea for a robot may not fall nicely into any of the above categories or may be comprised of several different functional sections. Note again that this guide is intended for mobile robots as opposed to stationary or permanently fixed designs (other than robotic arms and grippers). It is wise to consider when building a hybrid design, to use a modular design (each functional part can be taken off and tested separately). Miscellaneous designs can include hovercraft, snake-like designs, turrets and more.

Advantages

• Designed and built to meet specific needs
• Multi-tasking and can be comprised of modules
• Can lead to increased functionality and versatility

Disadvantages

• Possible Increased complexity and cost
• Often times, parts must be custom designed and built

Arms & Grippers

Although these do not fall under the category of mobile robotics, the field of robotics essentially started with arms and end-effectors (devices that attach to the end of an arm such as grippers, electromagnets etc). Arms and grippers are the best way for a robot to interact with the environment it is exploring. Simple robot arms can have just one motion, while more complex arms can have a dozen or more unique degrees of freedom.

Advantages

• Very simple to very complex design possibilities
• Easy to make a 3 or 4 degree of freedom robot arm (two joints and turning base)

Disadvantages

• Stationary unless mounted on a mobile platform
• Cost to build is proportional to lifting capability

Practical Example

In our case, we have opted for building a robot that will provide the maximum exposure to robotics. A programmable tracked platform that can accommodate a variety of sensors and gripper sees ideal in this case, specially since we consider tank tracks  are far cooler than wheels.

In order to keep the costs down, we opted to build a small desktop robot that will be able to roam indoors and on tabletops. We also have taken into consideration the fact that there are not many tracks available, and to keep things simple, we’ll only consider a single drive sprocket and single idler sprocket system, this should not be a problem since the robot will be very light weight.

The preliminary CAD below summarized the features describes so far.

Next, we will be choosing the right actuators (e.g. motors) for your robot.

Many of you will recall Bill Joy’s famous article in Wired called Why the future doesn’t need us, where he expressed concern about various technologies including advanced nanotech. Apparently he gave an update of his views on this in his talk for TED, viewable here. An excerpt:

So if we can address, use technology, help address education, help address the environment, help address the pandemic, does that solve the larger problem that I was talking about in the Wired article? And I’m afraid the answer is really no, because you can’t solve a problem with the management of technology with more technology. If we let an unlimited amount of power loose, then we will — a very small number of people will be able to abuse it. We can’t fight at a million-to-one disadvantage. So what we need to do is, we need better policy. And for example, some things we could do that would be policy solutions which are not really in the political air right now but perhaps with the change of administration would be — use markets.

Whether you agree with him or not, it’s a useful discussion to have. As he says:

We can’t pick the future, but we can steer the future…So we can design the future if we choose what kind of things we want to have happen and not have happen, and steer us to a lower-risk place.

Check it out. —Chris Peterson

An article in New Scientist with the optimistic title “Artificial life forms evolve basic intelligence” gives an update on how two specific examples of computational artificial life is doing in terms of evolving to have more interesting behavior.  An excerpt:

Brains that have been evolved with HyperNEAT have millions of connections, yet still perform a task well, and that number could be pushed higher yet,” he says. “This is a sea change for the field. Being able to evolve functional brains at this scale allows us to begin pushing the capabilities of artificial neural networks up, and opens up a path to evolving artificial brains that rival their natural counterparts.

See the comments after the article for useful discussion.  A field to keep an eye on.  —Chris Peterson